Onno van der Hart, Ellert R S Nijenhuis (2001)
Generalized dissociative amnesia: episodic, semantic and procedural memories lost and found.
Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2001 Oct;35(5):589-600

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: This review tests Ribot's classic twofold categorization of generalized amnesia (GA) into Type I, total loss of episodic memory, and Type II, additional more or less extensive loss of semantic and/or procedural memory. It also explores his law of regression, according to which, cast in modern terms, recovery of lost procedural and semantic memories precedes recovery of episodic memory, as well as reported aetiological factors. METHOD: Clinically and formally assessed cases of GA, published since 1845, were surveyed and further analysed. RESULTS: Over and above authentic episodic memory loss, cases differed widely in the extent of impairment of semantic and procedural memory. Recovery of semantic and procedural memory often preceded recovery of episodic memory. This particularly applied to authenticated trauma memories. To an extent, lost memories affected current functioning, and in some cases were associated with alternating dissociative personalities. Severe memory distortions upon memory recovery were not reported. Most cases were trauma or stress related, while in some cases the aetiology remained unknown. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to the view expressed in DSM-IV, which states that dissociative amnesia pertains to an inability to recall personal information, GA may also involve loss and recovery of semantic and procedural memories. Since the loss of various memory types in GA is dimensional rather than categorical, Ribot's typological distinction does not hold. Some of the reviewed cases suggest a trauma-related aetiology. Generalized amnesia of varying degrees of severity can involve delayed retrieval of trauma memories, as well as the loss and delayed retrieval of the premorbid personality.

Ellert Nijenhuis, Annegien van Engen, Ine Kusters and Onno van der Hart (2001)
Peritraumatic Somatoform and Psychological Dissociation in Relation to Recall of Childhood Sexual Abuse.
Journal of Trauma and Dissociation 2001, Vol.: 2 Issue: 3 Pages 49 - 68

Abstract: Objective: Overwhelming experience can evoke psychological dissociation during or immediately after the event, including dissociative amnesia. Whereas some data suggest that such peritraumatic dissociation can also find expression in somatoform symptoms, only a limited range of such symptoms has been systematically studied. The present study hypothesized that peritraumatic psychological and somatoform dissociation are associated with each other, with delayed recall of childhood sexual abuse (CSA), and with CSA severity. Becuase current somatoform dissociation is most strongly associated with recalled childhodd physical abuse (CPA), we also hypothesized that perotraumatic somato form dissociation is associated with reported CPA over and above CSA. Method: Thirty-four Dutch women who reported CSA were interviewed using a modified version of the Traumatic Memory Inventory (TMI) which assesses the characteristics of traumatic memories. The participants also completed the Traumatic Experiences Checklist, the Peritraumatic Dissociation Experiences Questionnaire, and the Peritruamatic Somatoform Dissociation Questionnaire. Results: Peritraumatic psychological and somatoform dissociation were associated with each other, with delated recall of trauma, and with severity of reported CSA. Reported CPA predicted peritraumatic somatoform dissociation over and above the severity of CSA in terms of the acts involved. Aproximately 44% of the women reported in dependent corraboration of the abuse. Similar proportions of delated, partial, and continuous CSA memories were corroborated. Conclusions: This retrospective study suggested that delayed recall of CSA is associated with peritraumatic dissociation and CSA severity. It also suggested that trauma-especially that which involves serious threat to the integrity of the body-may evoke somatoform dissociation. Based on patient report, delayed recall of some CSA memories was accurate as continuous recall of CSA.